Progressive microbial attacks characterize the horse bone, which was exposed to MIS 3 sub-aerial biogenic decay and modern surficial weathering. 45 ka in a frozen state in a cryolithic formation, only superficial microbial degradation processes were detected. In the bison bone, which was permafrost-sealed shortly after death of the animal and conserved for ca.
Diagenetic changes in bone porosity and chemical composition as a result of the past microbial activity were investigated by multiple analytical methods. metacarpus (37.8 ± 1.7 ¹⁴ C ka BP) from the recently exposed cryogenic geo-contexts in the Yana River basin, NE Yakutia. metacarpus (45.0 ± 5.0 ¹⁴ C ka BP) and a weathered Equus sp. Different levels of past microbial activity affecting fossil material preservation are presented for two selected bone samples-an almost intact Bison sp. Paleontological remains retrieved from permafrost represent the most informative records of Pleistocene ecosystems. New information contributes to better understanding of the diagenesis particularities and the associated chemical and biological agents of the fossil osteological assemblages with respect to their taphonomic and paleoenvironmental implications. This is evidenced by extensive bacterial micro-boring with the typical focal destructions, an increase in microbial porosity, and de-mineralized osseous zones due to waterlogged and poorly oxygenated past depositional conditions. Horse bone, which was exposed to MIS 3 sub-aerial biogenic decay and modern surficial weathering. Progressive microbial attacks characterize the metacarpus (37.8 ± 1.7 14C ka BP) from the recently exposed cryogenic geo-contexts in the Yana River basin, NE Yakutia. metacarpus (45.0 ± 5.0 14C ka BP) and a weathered Equus sp. On the surface of two leg specimens, a small layer with brown granules was visible by means of optical microscopy, and these were identified as melanin granules in the stratum basale of the epidermis.
TRIBAL ELEMENTAL TRIBAL 4 ELEMENTS TATTOO SKIN
Furthermore, in non-tattooed skin areas, a vivianite crystal and small grains of CaPO4 and nearby Fe, P and O could be detected, these having formed most probably after the death of the Tyrolean Iceman during his long period in the mountains. Additionally, in the medial part of the right leg, putative ash particles were seen in the tattooed area.
The crystals possibly derived from stones of the fireplace from which the soot was taken for tattooing.
In some areas between the soot particles, different silicate crystals are present such as almandine and quartz, along with some not exactly definable crystals. The tattooing particles are distributed in the connective tissue and could be identified as soot. The epidermis of the investigated skin areas was mostly lacking. Skin samples of several line tattoos and a cross tattoo were investigated by optical microscopy and various electron microscopy techniques (TEM, EFETEM, EELS, EDXS, electron diffraction). The Tyrolean iceman, a 5300-year-old mummy, presents tattoos on different parts of his body.
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